Describe the 3 most critical best practices in securing mobile applications. Justify your choices.

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Discussion 2 – Information Governance

Chapter 14 – Mobile devices

APA Format

300 – 350 Words

Reference:

Smallwood, R. F. (2014). Information Governance : Concepts, Strategies, and Best Practices.

Wiley. ISBN: 9781118218303

Discussion 1 – Organizational Behavior

Chapter 13 – Power and Politics

Chapter – 14 – Conflict and Negotiation

Reflect on the assigned readings for the week. Identify what you thought was the most important concept(s), method(s), term(s), and/or any other thing that you felt was worthy of your understanding.

Also, provide a graduate-level response to each of the following questions:

· Pauline has been asked to reorganize her department, eliminating at least two people within the office. Pauline has strong personal relationships with everyone in her office and being asked to complete this task is very hard on her. Thinking back to Stage Four of the conflict process, discuss one of the types of intentions with which Pauline might struggle in this situation.?

· What are the various individual factors that make a person more likely to engage in political behavior?

[Your initial post should be based upon the assigned reading for the week, so the textbook should be a source listed in your reference section and cited within the body of the text. Other sources are not required but feel free to use them if they aid in your discussion].

[Your initial post should be at least 450+ words and in APA format (including Times New Roman with font size 12 and double spaced). Post the actual body of your paper in the discussion thread then attach a Word version of the paper for APA review].

Reference:

Robbins, S. & Judge T. (2018). Essentials of Organizational Behavior. 14th Boston, MA: Pearson.

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-452385-9 (Not the Global Edition)

Problem set 1 – Project Planning

Chapter 15 – Communication Planning

You were the project manager in charge of building a house in Ashburn, Virginia. The house was a five-bedroom home estimated to cost $1.2 million dollars and had to be completed in 24 months. You have successfully built the house within cost and on time. You created a Project Budget, Project Schedule, Project Communication Plan, and Project Monitoring and Control Processes Plan for some unexpected schedule and cost problems.

Now, develop a lessons-learned document for your organization and the project stakeholders. A lessons-learned document describes procurement closure activities including administrative and contract closure activities. This lessons-learned document must include what went well, what went wrong, and suggestions for future house-building projects in Northern Virginia, which looks promising since your team was so successful in this house-building project. Explain why this document is important for your project.

Reference:

Watt, A. (2019). Project Management, 2nd Edition. BCcampus Open Education.

Cover

Problem set 2 – Organizational Behavior

Chapter 13 – Power and Politics

Chapter – 14 – Conflict and Negotiation

1. Contrast leadership and power.

2. What can managers do to manage conflicts effectively in their organizations?

The assignment is to answer the question provided above in essay form. This is to be in narrative form. Bullet points should not to be used. The paper should be at least 1.5 – 2 pages in length, Times New Roman 12-pt font, double-spaced, 1 inch margins and utilizing at least one outside scholarly or professional source related to organizational behavior. This does not mean blogs or websites. This source should be a published article in a scholarly journal. This source should provide substance and not just be mentioned briefly to fulfill this criteria. The textbook should also be utilized. Do not use quotes. Do not insert excess line spacing. APA formatting and citation should be used.

Reference:

Robbins, S. & Judge T. (2018). Essentials of Organizational Behavior. 14th Boston, MA: Pearson.

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-452385-9 (Not the Global Edition)

Essentials of Organizational Behavior

Fourteenth Edition

Chapter 13

Power and Politics

After studying this chapter you should be able to:

Contrast leadership and power.

Explain the three bases of formal power and the two bases of personal power.

Explain the role of dependence in power relationships.

Identify power or influence tactics and their contingencies.

Identify the causes and consequences of abuse of power.

Describe how politics work in organizations.

Identify the causes, consequences, and ethics of political behavior.

A Definition of Power

Power: The capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes

The most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence

Power refers to the capacity one person has over the other person to get the individual to do something. Inherent in this definition is the idea of dependency. The stronger the relationship or the dependency that one person has when the other possesses something they want or requires, the greater the dependency on that person.

Contrasting Leadership and Power

Differences Leadership Power
Goal Compatibility Requires goal congruence Only needs dependence
Direction of Influence Focuses on downward influence Concerned with influence in all directions
Research Emphasis Emphasizes leadership style Broader topic: focuses on tactics used by individuals and groups
Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Leadership and power are two different concepts and need to be defined separately. Leadership is focusing on goal achievement along with followers. Power is used as a way to accomplish the goal and often followers are also means to accomplish the goal. Leadership will focus on using leadership downward to influence others to help them achieve their tasks, whereas power uses influence to gain something upward or laterally.

Formal Bases of Power

Formal power is based on an individual’s organizational position

Coercive Power: Complies from fear of the negative results

Reward Power: Complies due to desire for positive benefits

Legitimate Power: From the formal authority to control and use organizational resources

There are two main bases of power, formal and personal. Formal power is defined by the position a person will hold in the organization. People with formal power can utilize different power bases to accomplish their tasks. The first is coercive power, where employees fear negative consequences if they don’t do what they are told. Reward power is the ability to distribute rewards that others see as valuable, encouraging them to accomplish the goals or tasks to get the reward. The last base is legitimate power where the formal authority to control and use resources is then based on the person’s position in the formal hierarchy.

Personal Bases of Power

Personal power stems from an individual’s unique characteristics

Expert: Influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge

Referent: Based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits

Charisma

The second major form of power is personal power, which comes through the individual’s personality and characteristics. This is often more effective than formal power. Personal power can be based on expert power, or the individual’s special skills or knowledge. It can also be based on referent power, or the personal traits or resources he or she offers to others.

Effective Power Bases

Expert and referent power are positively related to performance and commitment

Reward and legitimate power are unrelated to organizational outcomes

Coercive power is negatively related to employee satisfaction and commitment

Expert and referent power tend to be more effective when goals are related to performance and commitment. However, reward and legitimate power do not seem related to organizational outcomes.

We have seen that coercive power tends to be negatively related to work outcomes, such as employee satisfaction and commitment.

General Dependence Postulate

The greater B’s dependence on A, the more power A has over B

What creates dependence?

Importance

Scarcity

Non-substitutability

The most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence.

Social Network Analysis

We can uses social network analysis to assess the exchange of resources and dependencies within an organization.

A graphical illustration of the associations among individuals in a social network is called a sociogram, which functions like an informal version of an organization chart. The difference is that a formal organization chart shows how authority is supposed to flow, whereas a sociogram shows how resources really flow in an organization.

Power Tactics

Power tactics: Used to translate power bases into specific actions that influence others

Some are more effective than others

There are a number of power tactics an individual can use or ways in which they can make the power base work for them by moving people into specific actions. Some are more effective than others.

Nine Influence Tactics

Legitimacy

Rational persuasion

Inspirational appeals

Consultation

Exchange

Personal appeals

Ingratiation

Pressure

Coalitions

This slide exhibits 9 major power or influence tactics. They are legitimacy, rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, exchange, personal appeals, ingratiation, pressure, and coalitions.

Influence Tactic Effectiveness

Most Effective

Rational persuasion

Inspirational appeals

Consultation

Least Effective

Pressure

Combining tactics increases effectiveness

Direction, sequencing, individual skill, and organizational culture modify effectiveness

Many factors can influence the effectiveness of the power tactics discussed. The most effective tactics tend to be rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation, while the least effective is pressure.

Their ability to encourage the desired behavior could depend on the sequencing of the tactics. It is often better to start with softer tactics such as exchange and work up to harder tactics such as pressure. The success of the tactics will, however, greatly depend on the political skill of the user and the context or culture of the organization.

Preferred Power Tactics by Influence Direction

While rational persuasion may work for you, the effectiveness of some influence tactics depends on the direction of influence. This exhibit shows that rational persuasion is the only tactic effective across organizational levels.

Cultural Preferences for Power

Culture affects preference for power tactics

Individualistic cultures

See power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing personal ends

Engage in more self-enhancement behaviors

Collectivistic cultures

See power in social terms and as legitimate means of helping others

An individual’s culture influences preferences for power tactics. Individualistic cultures view power in personalized terms and see it as a legitimate means of advancing personal ends, while those in collectivistic cultures view power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others.

Political Skill

Political skill: ability to influence others to enhance one’s own objectives

Politically skilled are more effective users of all the influence tactics

Political skill is more effective when the stakes are high

Those with political skill can exert their influence without others detecting it

When an organization is run with open and fairly applied rules, free of favoritism or biases, political skill is actually negatively related to job performance.

People who fit the culture of the organization also tend to obtain more influence. Extraverts tend to be more influential in team-oriented organizations, and highly-conscientious people are more influential in organizations that value working alone on technical tasks.

How Power Affects People

People with power:

Put their interests ahead of others

Objectify others

React to threats against their competence

Tend to be overconfident

But there can be positive effects of power

Depends on personality

Power doesn’t affect everyone in the same way.

The toxic effects of power depend on one’s personality. Power doesn’t corrupt those with anxious personalities because they are less likely to think that using power benefits them. The corrosive effects of power can be contained by organizational systems. We have the power to blunt the negative effects of power. The people who are most likely to abuse power are those who are low in status and gain power.

Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment is any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual’s employment or creates a hostile work environment

More prevalent in male-dominated societies

Managers have a responsibility to protect their employees from a hostile work environment

The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) states that sexual harassment happens when a person encounters “unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature” on the job that disrupt work performance or that create an “intimidating, hostile, or offensive” work environment.

While countries define sexual harassment differently, most nations have at least some policies to protect workers. However, the real question may be whether the policies or laws are followed.

Organizational Politics

Political behavior: consists of activities that are not required as part of an individual’s formal role but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization

Organizational politics focuses either on the use of power to affect decision making in an organization, or on self-serving and organizationally unsanctioned behaviors.

The Reality of Politics

Politics arise in organizations because of:

Conflicting interests

Limited resources

Ambiguity in decision making

Politicking: Twisting facts to support one’s own goals and interests

Politics often occurs when resources are low; the excess demand for the resources leads to competition and political behaviors. When the scarce resources are distributed, there will be varying views regarding how “fairly” or “effectively” the distribution was done. Perceptions can be distorted such that the manager feels he or she is documenting decisions, but the employee just feels that the manager is covering his rear.

Most of the time, managers are making decisions under ambiguous conditions and there is not a readily available objective standard. This creates a context in which political maneuvering is encouraged.

Factors Contributing to Political Behavior

There are a number of factors that influence political behavior. These factors include individual factors such as those with high “mach” personalities or high expectations of success. Situational influences such as low organizational investment or high expectations of success can lead to illegitimate political actions.

As well as organizational factors such as a culture of low trust and role ambiguity. The combination of these factors will lead to political behavior, which can lead to favorable outcomes such as increased rewards or decreased punishments.

Responses to Organizational Politics

Organizational politics may threaten employees

Decreased job satisfaction

Increased anxiety and stress

Increased turnover

Reduced performance

For most people who have modest political skills or who are unwilling to play the politics game, outcomes tend to be predominantly negative in terms of decreased job satisfaction, increased anxiety and stress, increased turnover, and reduced performance.

Qualifiers to Responses to Organizational Politics

The politics-performance relationship is moderated by individual’s understanding of who makes decisions and why they were selected

Political behavior at work moderates the effects of ethical leadership

When politics are perceived as a threat, people respond with defensive behaviors

Most employees will not engage in a high level of politics and often react negatively to politics. Their reactions include decreased job satisfaction, increased anxiety and stress, increased turnover, and a reduction in performance. Even though the given outcome for the individual employee who engages in politics may be favorable, it is often a negative impact for the group as a whole.

Defensive Behaviors

This exhibit shows examples of defensive behaviors.

Impression Management

Impression management: The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them

Impression management is a response to political behavior and is defined as the process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them. Some techniques used to manage this impression are conformity, self-promotion, favors, excuses, apologies, self-promotion, and association.

Using Impression Management

IM and interviews:

Self-promotion and ingratiation work well

IM and performance evaluations:

Ingratiation positively related

Self-promotion is negatively related

IM by culture:

Are our conclusions about responses to politics globally valid?

We don’t really know

Impression management has shown to be effective in different situations, such as job interviews and performance evaluations. It is important that in an interview you set forth a positive impression. Many applicants utilize IM to get the interviewer to like them. Self-promotion is seen as important because it shows confidence; however, in an interview, ingratiation is not as effective. Nevertheless, in performance evaluations ingratiation has been found to be a positive technique and linked to higher rankings. However, self-promotion does not work as well in this context.

Most research on employee reactions to organizational politics is U.S.-based; the few studies that have been done elsewhere suggest that minor modifications may be necessary to our understanding.

The Ethics of Behaving Politically

Questions to consider:

What is the utility of engaging in politicking?

How does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance out any harm it will do to others?

Does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice?

Is political behavior ethical in the workplace? Well, the answer is probably yes and no. It is difficult to tell ethical from unethical politicking. There are three questions that can help define ethical/unethical political behavior:

What is the utility of engaging in the behavior?

Does the utility balance out any harm done by the action?

Does the action conform to standards of equity and justice?

The answers to these questions can help you decide if the behavior is ethical or unethical.

Mapping Your Political Career

One of the most useful ways to think about power and politics is in terms of your own career. This exhibit is an example of a political map based on your hypothetical relationships with the people upon whom your career depends.

Implications for Managers

To maximize your power, increase others’ dependence on you.

You will not be alone in attempting to build your power bases.

Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel they have no power.

By assessing behavior in a political framework, you can better predict the actions of others and use that information to formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you and your work unit.

Help others understand the importance of becoming politically savvy.

As a manager who wants to maximize your power, you will want to increase others’ dependence on you.

You will not be alone in attempting to build your power bases.

Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel they have no power.

Consider that employees who have poor political skills or are unwilling to play the politics game generally relate perceived organizational politics to lower job satisfaction and self-reported performance, increased anxiety, and high turnover. Help others understand the importance of becoming politically savvy.

Essentials of Organizational Behavior

Fourteenth Edition

Chapter 14

Conflict and Negotiation

After studying this chapter you should be able to:

Describe the three types of conflict and the three loci of conflict.

Outline the conflict process.

Contrast distributive and integrative bargaining.

Apply the five steps of the negotiation process.

Show how individual differences influence negotiations.

Describe the social factors that influence negotiations.

Assess the roles and functions of third-party negotations.

Definition of Conflict

Conflict: Process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about

Conflict primarily deals with perception. If nobody thinks there is conflict, then no conflict exists. Conflict can be experienced in an organization through many different avenues. It can be that the goals of the individuals are incompatible or there is a difference of opinion over the interpretation of facts. Many conflicts also arise through disagreements about how people should behave.

Perspectives of Conflict

Functional conflict:

Supports the goals of the group and improves its performance

Dysfunctional conflict:

Hinders group performance

Contemporary perspectives differentiate types of conflict based on their effects.

Effect of Levels of Conflict

This exhibit shows the effect of levels of conflict.

Types of Conflict

Three categories of conflict:

Task conflict:

Work content and goals

Relationship conflict: Interpersonal relationships

Process conflict:

How the work is done

You can assess the focus of conflict by looking at either task, relationship, or process.

Desired Conflict Levels

Source of Conflict Blank Level of Conflict Blank
Blank Low Moderate High
Task Functional Blank Dysfunctional
Relationship Blank Dysfunctional Blank
Process Functional Dysfunctional Blank
Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Task conflict arises when there is conflict over the content and/or goals of the work. If this type of conflict exists at low to moderate levels, then this is a functional conflict that can help individuals seek clarification or new ideas on how to accomplish their goals.

Relationship conflict is based on problems between individuals and is almost always dysfunctional.

Process conflict occurs when there is disagreement on how the work gets done. Low levels of process conflict represent functional conflict.

Loci of Conflict

Three sources of conflict:

Dyadic conflict:

Conflict between two people

Intragroup conflict:

Conflict occurring within a group or team

Intergroup conflict:

Conflict between groups or teams

Another way to understand conflict is to consider where it occurs – its locus.

In sum, the traditional view that all conflict should be eliminated is short-sighted. The interactionist view that conflict can stimulate active discussion without spilling over into negative, disruptive emotions is incomplete. Thinking about conflict in terms of type and locus helps us realize that conflict is probably inevitable in most organizations. Therefore, it’s important to manage the variables of the conflict process.

The Conflict Process

The conflict process is outlined above; in the following slides, we will look at each step individually.

Stage I: Potential Opposition

Communication

Barriers exist

Too much or too little

Structure

Group size, age, diversity

Organizational rewards, goals, group dependency

Personal Variables

Personality types

Emotionality

Stage I of the conflict process is potential opposition or incompatibility. In this stage there are three main conditions that can cause conflict to arise. They are communication, structure, and personal variables. Communication may cause conflict when words mean different things to different people and misunderstandings result. Communication can be functional to a point, but when too much communication is given, it can cause frustrations and sometimes there are barriers in place to effectively hear what is being communicated.

Stage II: Cognition and Personalization

Potential for conflict is actualized

Parties “make sense” of conflict by defining it and its potential solutions

Emotions play a major role in shaping perceptions

Perceived conflict: awareness needed for actualization

Felt conflict: emotional involvement – parties experience anxiety, tension, frustration, or hostility

Stage II looks at the recognition or cognition of the conflict and the personalization or the emotional part of the conflict. As stated earlier, in order for conflict to be present there must be an awareness of its existence, defined as perceived conflict. Once people are aware of the conflict, emotions are expressed that can impact the outcome of the conflict; this is defined as felt conflict. Emotions can include anxiety, tension, frustration, or hostility.

Stage III: Intentions (1 of 2)

Intentions:

Decisions to act in a given way

Inferred (often erroneous) intentions may cause greater conflict

Five conflict handling intentions:

Competing

Collaborating

Avoiding

Accommodating

Compromising

Stage III starts to look at the intentions of the individuals involved. These intentions include the determination to act in a certain way, but it is important to realize behavior does not always accurately reflect intention. Sometimes people act out of emotion and not rational thinking.

Stage III: Intentions (2 of 2)

Using two dimensions – cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s concerns) and assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy her own concerns) – we can identify five conflict handling intentions: competing (assertive and uncooperative); collaborating (assertive and cooperative); avoiding (unassertive and uncooperative); accommodating (unassertive and cooperative); and compromising (midrange on both assertiveness and cooperativeness).

Stage IV: Behavior

Stage IV moves us beyond intentions to the chosen behavior in the conflict. This is when conflict becomes visible. Usually each party is using overt attempts to implement their own intentions.

This step may cause a reaction in others, either because the individual miscalculated someone’s intentions or he or she was not skilled in translating his or her intentions into behavior. This can cause functional conflicts that may be helpful, or dysfunction conflicts that can be highly destructive.

Functional conflicts are usually at the lower range of the continuum, while conflicts that reach the upper range of the continuum are almost always dysfunctional.

Stage V: Outcomes

Functional Outcomes:

Improves decision quality

Stimulates creativity and innovation

Encourages interest and curiosity

Problems are aired

Accepts change and self-evaluation

Dysfunctional Outcomes:

Group is less effective

Reduces cohesiveness and communications

Leads to the destruction of the group

Stage V looks at the outcomes of conflict resolution. Functional outcomes include increasing group performance, encouraging interest and curiosity, and creating an environment for self-evaluation and change. Dysfunctional outcomes include discontented workers, reduced group cohesiveness, and infighting. In order to create functional conflict, it is important to reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders.

Managing Conflict

Minimize counterproductive conflict:

Recognize when there really is a disagreement

Encourage open, frank discussion focused on interests

Have opposing groups pick important issues and work for mutual satisfaction

Emphasize shared interests

If managers recognize that in some situations conflict can be beneficial, they can encourage people to challenge the system and develop fresh ideas.

Cultural Influences

Culture influences conflict resolution strategies

Collectivist cultures try to use indirect methods to preserve relationships

Promote the good of the group as a whole

Individualist cultures confront differences of opinion directly and openly

There are numerous global implications in the area of conflict as different cultures will view conflict through unique lenses. For example, U.S. managers are more likely to use competing tactics whereas Japanese managers will tend toward compromise and avoidance.

Negotiation

Negotiation: Process that occurs when two or more parties decide how to allocate scarce resources

Negotiation or bargaining is the process where the people involved work on creating a deal that is mutually beneficial.

Bargaining Strategies

There are two main approaches – distributive and integrative. Distributive bargaining seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources and often creates a win/lose situation. Integrative bargaining seeks one or more settlements that can create a win-win situation for all parties involved.

Distributive Bargaining

This exhibit depicts distributive bargaining. Each negotiator has a target point that defines his goals and a resistance point that marks the lowest acceptable outcome. The area between these points is the settlement range in which both parties’ goals can be met.

Integrative Bargaining

Integrative bargaining:

A win-win solution is possible

But:

Parties must be open with information and candid about their concerns

Both parties must be sensitive regarding the other’s needs

Parties must be able to trust each other

Both parties must be willing to be flexible

In order for integrative bargaining to be successful, parties must be open with information and candid about their concerns. In addition, both parties must work to pay attention to the needs of the others involved. This all needs to happen so trust occurs. In the process both parties must be willing to be flexible in working toward a solution.

The Negotiation Process

The negotiation process is best understood through the negotiation process. The grid in this slide outlines the steps: Preparation and planning, definition of ground rules, clarification and justification, bargaining and problem solving, and closure and implementation. You should determine your BATNA and that of the other party before proceeding with negotiations. BATNA represents the Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement or the lowest acceptable value you will take for a negotiated agreement. Then anything above your BATNA is a good negotiated outcome.

Individual Differences in Negotiation Effectiveness

Personality Traits

Little evidence to support

Disagreeable introvert is best

Moods & Emotions

Showing anger helps in distributive negotiations

Positive moods help integrative negotiations

Culture

Negotiating styles vary across national cultures

Gender Differences

Men are slightly better

Many stereotypes – low power positions

Many individual differences are interwoven in the negotiation process and impact the effectiveness of the outcomes. Personality traits will impact outcomes as extroverts tend to be weaker at negotiation because they will want people to like them. Intelligence is not an indicator of effective negotiation skills.

Mood and emotion can impact negotiations as anger is often an effective tool in distributive bargaining, whereas positive moods are helpful in integrative bargaining situations.

Culture also plays a role in negotiations and the styles utilized. American negotiators will often make the first offer where Japanese negotiators will often wait. North Americans use facts to persuade, Arabs use emotions, and Russians speak more in ideals. Brazilians tend to say no when negotiating much more than Americans or Japanese negotiators will do so.

Gender can also impact negotiation effectiveness. Men and women tend to approach negotiations in the same way but may view the outcomes differently. Women may appear more tender in the process where men come across as tough. On the average, men are more likely to be negotiators than women.

Negotiating in a Social Context

Reputation

Trustworthiness

Competence and integrity

Relationships

What is best for the relationship as a whole

To really understand negotiations in practice, we have to consider the social factors of reputation and relationships.

Have a reputation for being trustworthy matters in negotiations. What characteristics help a person develop a trustworthy reputation? A combination of competence and integrity.

The social, interpersonal component of relationships with repeated negotiations means that individuals go beyond valuing what is simply good for themselves and instead start to think about what is best for the other party and the relationship as a whole.

Third-Party Negotiations

Basic third party roles:

Mediator: neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives

Arbitrator: third party to a negotiation who has the authority to dictate an agreement

Conciliator: trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the opponent

When it’s impossible to reach an agreement through direct negotiations, it may be necessary to turn to a third party to help find a solution. There are three basic third-party roles: mediator, arbitrator, and conciliator.

Implications for Managers

Choose an authoritarian management style in some situations.

Seek integrative solutions in some situations.

Build trust.

Consider compromise.

Consider the tradeoffs between distributive and integrative bargaining.

Choose an authoritarian management style:

In emergencies

When unpopular actions need to be implemented

When the issue is vital to the organization’s welfare

Seek integrative solutions:

When your objective is to learn

When you want to merge insights from people with different perspectives

When you need to gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus

When you need to work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship

Build trust by accommodating others:

When you find you’re wrong

When you need to demonstrate reasonableness

When other positions need to be heard

When issues are more important to others than to yourself

When you want to satisfy others and maintain cooperation

When you can build social credits for later issues

To minimize loss when you are outmatched and losing

When employees should learn from their mistakes

Consider compromising when:

Goals are important but not worth potential disruption

Opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals

You need temporary settlements to complex issues

Distributive bargaining can resolve disputes, but it often reduces the satisfaction of one or more negotiators because it’s confrontational and focused on the short term. Integrative bargaining tends to provide outcomes that satisfy all parties and build lasting relationships.

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