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A study to compare between DAX and CT scan to diagnose osteoporosis in elderly women ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 2 ABSTRACT.. 3 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. 7 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.. 8 1.0 Overview.. 8 1.1 Statement of the Problem.. 9 1.2 Research Question. 9 1.3 Aims and Objectives. 10 1.4 Importance of this Review.. 10 1.5 Summary. 10 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 12 2.0 Overview.. 12 2.1 Ultrasonography: A Major Advance in Healthcare Practice. 12 2.2 The Prevalence of WRMSDs in Sonographers. 13 2.2.1 Signs and Symptoms of WRMSDs in Sonographers. 14 2.2.2 Factors Predisposing Sonographers to WRMSD.. 15 2.2.3 Preventing the Onset and Reducing the Severity of WRMSDs in Sonographers. 18 2.2.3.1 Risk Assessments. 18 2.2.3.2 Ultrasound Equipment 18 2.2.3.3 Education. 18 2.2.3.4 The Work Environment 19 2.3 Summary. 19 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY.. 20 3.0 Overview.. 20 3.1 Criteria for Formulating the Research Question. 20 3.2 Study Design. 22 3.3 The Search Strategy and Study Selection. 25 3.4 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria. 26 3.5 Final Study Selection. 27 3.6 Data Extraction. 27 3.7 Quality of the Chosen Studies. 28 3.8 Summary. 29 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS. 30 4.0 Overview.. 30 4.1 Study Selection. 30 4.2 Quality Assessment of the Chosen Studies. 33 4.3 Characteristics of the Selected Studies. 33 4.4 Prevalence and Development of WRMSDs in Sonographers. 37 4.4.1 Techniques and Protocols. 38 4.4.2 Sample Size and Correlations. 38 4.5 Factors Influencing WRMSDs in Sonographers. 40 4.6 Summary. 43 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION.. 44 5.0 Overview.. 44 5.1 Summary of the Evidence. 44 5.2 Limitations. 46 5.3 Findings within the Context of the Current Evidence. 47 5.4 Research Recommendations. 48 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION.. 50 References. 51 Appendices. 57 List of Tables 22 Defined Elements of the PIO Framework Used for this Research Study. 3.1 32 Examples of Reasons for Exclusion of Studies 4.1 35 Characteristics of the Selected Studies 4.2 List of Figures 31 The Study Selection Process using the PRISMA Statement. 4.1 40 Total Sample Size and Distribution Across and Within All Six Papers 4.2 List of Appendices Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP).. 57 muscle pain, which is an indicator of various diseases and disorders. The most common reasons for such pain are the overuse or over-stretching of a muscle or group of muscles, or arthralgia, which is a symptom of infection, injury and illnesses in particular, osteoarthritis; (Hackmon et al, 2006). As a result, this group of practitioners is often prone to developing one form of WRMSD or another. These are often referred to interchangeably as musculoskeletal injuries (MSIs), repetitive strain injuries (RSIs) and WRMSDs. http://www.aota.org/DocumentVault/AJOT/Systematic-Guide.aspx [Accessed 29 July 2014]. Armitage, A. & Keeble-Allen, D. 2008, Undertaking a Structured Literature Review or Structuring a Literature Review: Tales from the Field, The Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 103-114. Armstrong, R., Hall, B., Doyle, J. & Waters, E. 2011, Cochrane update. scoping the scope of a cochrane review, Journal of Public Health (Oxford, England), vol. 33, no. 12, pp. 147-150. Aslam, S. & Emmanuel, P. 2010, Formulating a researchable question: A critical step for facilitating good clinical research, Indian Journal of Sexually Transmitted Diseases, vol. 31, no. 12, pp. 47-50. Baker, J. & Coffin, C. 2013, The importance of an ergonomic workstation to practicing sonographers, Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine, vol. 32, no. 8, pp. 1363-1375. Barr, A., Barbe, M. & Clark, B. 2004, Work-related musculoskeletal disorders of the hand and wrist: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and sensorimotor changes, Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, vol. 34, no. 10, pp. 610-627. Bassey, D., Eduwem, D., Inah, G., Udoaka, A. & Akintomide, A. 2013,Work-Rekated Musculoskeletal Disorder amongst Sonologists in Nigeria, IOSR Journal of Dentak and Medical Sciences, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 68-71. Bastian, E., Kits, J., Weaver, J., Stevenson, J., Carlton, L., Raaymakers, S., et al. 2009, Effects of work experience, patient size, and hand preference on the performance of sonography studies, Journal of Diagnostic Medical Sonography, vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 25-39. Bettany-Saltikov, J. 2010, Learning how to undertake a systematic review: Part 2, Nursing Standard (Royal College of Nursing (Great Britain): 1987), vol. 24, no. 51, pp. 47-56. Boudin, F., Nie, J., Bartlett, J., Grad, R., Pluye, P. & Dawes, M. 2010, Combining classifiers for robust PICO element detection, BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 29-35. Bragge, P. 2010, Asking good clinical research questions and choosing the right study design, International Journal of Care of the Injured, vol. 41, , pp. S3-S6. Choi, P., Halpern, S., Malik, N., Jadad, A., Tramr, M. & Walder, B. 2001, Examining the evidence in anesthesia literature: A critical appraisal of systematic reviews, Anesthesia & Analgesia, vol. 92, no. 3, pp. 700-709. Cho, N., Hwang, J., Lee, Y. & Chae, S. 2011, Tendinosis-like histologic and molecular changes of the Achilles tendon to repetitive stress: a pilot study in rats, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, vol. 469, no. 11, pp. 3172-3180. Christenssen, W. 2001, Stretch exercises reducing the musculoskeletal pain and discomfort in the arms and upper body of echocardiographers, Journal of Diagnostic Medical Sonography, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 123-140. Coffin, C. 2014, Work-related musculoskeletal disorders in sonographers: A review of causes and types of injury and best practices for reducing injury risk, Reports in Medical Imaging, vol. 7, pp. 15-26. Cook, D. & West, C. 2012, Conducting systematic reviews in medical education: A stepwise approach, Medical Education, vol. 46, no. 10, pp. 943-952. Cross, N., Craig, J. & Webster, A. 2010, Asking the right question and finding the right answers, Nephrology, vol. 15, no. 12, pp. 8-11. Cruzes, D. & Dyb, T. 2011, Research synthesis in software engineering: A tertiary study, Information and Software Technology, vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 440-455. Das, K., Malick, S. & Khan, K. 2008, Tips for teaching evidence-based medicine in a clinical setting: Lessons from adult learning theory. part one, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, vol. 101, no. 10, pp. 493-500. Dawson, C. 2002, Practical research methods: a user-friendly guide to mastering research techniques and projects, How To Books Ltd, Oxford, U.K. Deeks, J., Higgins, J. & Altman, D. 2008, Analysing Data and Undertaking MetaAnalyses, Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions: Cochrane Book Series, pp. 243-296. Duclos, P., Durrheim, D., Reingold, A., Bhutta, Z., Vannice, K. & Rees, H. 2012, Developing evidence-based immunization recommendations and GRADE, Vaccine, vol. 31, no. 12, pp. 12-19. Edgar, F. & Geare, A. 2009, Inside the Black Box and HRM, International Journal of Manpower, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 220-236. Edwards, J. 2012, Dominant Upper Extremity Kinematics and Muscular Activity in Sonographers during Kidney Scanning, Masters Theses, Paper 17. Engen, D., Wahner-Roedler, D., Nadolny, A., Persinger, C., Oh, J., Spittell, P., et al. 2010, The effect of chair massage on muscular discomfort in cardiac sonographers: A pilot study, BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 10, pp. 50-55. Flegal, K., Carroll, M., Ogden, C. & Curtin, L. 2010, Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2008, Jama, vol. 303, no. 3, pp.235-241. Gasparyan, A., Ayvazyan, L., Blackmore, H. & Kitas, G. 2011, Writing a narrative biomedical review: Considerations for authors, peer reviewers, and editors, Rheumatology International, vol. 31, no. 11, pp. 1409-1417. Gibbs, V & Young, P. 2011, A study of the experiences of participants following attendance at a workshop on methods to prevent or reduce work-related musculoskeletal disorders amongst sonographers, Radiography, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 223-229. Guyatt, G., Oxman, A., Kunz, R., Atkins, D., Brozek, J., Vist, G., et al. 2011, GRADE guidelines: 2. framing the question and deciding on important outcomes, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, vol. 64, no. 4, pp. 395-400. Hackett, M. & Anderson, C. 2005, Predictors of depression after stroke: a systematic review of observational studies, Stroke; a journal of cerebral circulation, vol. 36, no. 10, pp. 2296-2301. Hackmon, R., Sheiner, E., Barnhard, Y., Beer, R. & Meizner, I. 2006, The hazards to practitioners of obstetric and gynecological ultrasound, Ultrasound in Obstetrics &Gynecology, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 204-206. Higgins, J. & Green, S. 2011, Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0. The Cochrane Collaboration, [online]. Available at: http://handbook.cochrane.org/ [Accessed 29 July 2014]. Horsley, T., ONeill, J., McGowan, J., Perrier, L., Kane, G. & Campbell, C. 2010, Interventions to improve question formulation in professional practice and self-directed learning, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, vol. 5, pp. 1-28. Ingkanisorn, W., Rhoads, K., Aletras, A., Kellman, P. & Arai, A. 2004, Gadolinium delayed enhancement cardiovascular magnetic resonance correlates with clinical measures of myocardial infarction, Journal of the American College of Cardiology, vol.43, no.12, pp.2253-2259. Irurhe, N., Okafor, U., Adekola, O., Odebiyi, D., Habeebu, M. & Sowunmi, A. 2013, Work related musculoskeletal discomforts (WRMD) in ultrasonologists: Prevalence and risk factors, World Journal of Medical Sciences, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 199-204. Jakobsen, M., OReilly, E., Heitmann, B., Pereira, M., Balter, K., Fraser, G., et al. 2009, Major types of dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease: A pooled analysis of 11 cohort studies, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 1425-1432. Jalalian, M. & Danial, A. 2012, Writing for academic journals: A general approach, Electronic Physician, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 474-476. Kung, J., Chiappelli, F., Cajulis, O., Avezova, R., Kossan, G., Chew, L., et al. 2010, From systematic reviews to clinical recommendations for evidence-based health care: Validation of revised assessment of multiple systematic reviews (R-AMSTAR) for grading of clinical relevance, The Open Dentistry Journal, vol. 4, pp. 84-91. Le Corroller, T., Vertinsky, A., Hargunani, R., Khashoggi, K., Munk, P. & Ouellette, H. 2012, Musculoskeletal injuries related to yoga: Imaging observations, American Journal of Roentgenology, vol. 199, no. 2, pp. 413-418. Leone, F., Evers-Casey, S., Toll, B. & Vachani, A. 2013,Treatment of Tobacco Use in Lung cancer: Diagnosis and Management of Lung Cancer, 3rd edn, American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines, CHEST, vol. 143, no. 5, pp. e61S-e77S. Lewin, S., Oxman, A., Lavis, J. & Fretheim, A. 2009, SUPPORT tools for evidence-informed health policymaking (STP) 8: Deciding how much confidence to place in a systematic review, Health Research Policy and Systems / BioMed Central, vol. 7, no. 12, pp. 8. Lichtenstein, A., Yetley, E. & Lau, J. 2008, Application of systematic review methodology to the field of nutrition, The Journal of Nutrition, vol. 138, no. 12, pp. 2297-2306. Machotka, Z., Kumar, S. & Perraton, L. 2009, A systematic review of the literature on the effectiveness of exercise therapy for groin pain in athletes, Sports Medicine, Arthroscopy, Rehabilitation, Therapy & Technology: SMARTT, vol. 12, no. 12, pp. 5. Magnavita, N., Bevilacqua, L., Mirk, P., Fileni, A. & Castellino, N. 1999, Work-related musculoskeletal complaints in sonologists, Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, vol. 41, no. 11, pp. 981-988. Mann, K., Gordon, J. & MacLeod, A. 2009, Reflection and reflective practice in health professions education: A systematic review, Advances in Health Sciences Education, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 595-621. McKiernan, S., Chiarelli, P. & Warren-Forward, H. 2010, Diagnostic ultrasound use in physiotherapy, emergency medicine, and anaesthesiology, Radiography, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 154-159. McNutt, L., Wu, C., Xue, X. & Hafner, J. 2003, Estimating the relative risk in cohort studies and clinical trials of common outcomes, American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 157, no. 10, pp. 940-943. Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J. & Altman, D. 2009, Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 151, no. 4, pp. 264-269. Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J. & Altman, D. 2009b, Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA Statement, Public Library of Science, [online].vol. 6, no.7, pp. 264-269. Available at: http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000097 [Accessed 30 July 2014]. Moraes, G., Gonalves, F., Silva, J. & Soares, N. 2009, Correlation among scapular positioning, functional postural analysis and upper extremities disability degree in sonographers (DASH Brazil), Radiol.bras, vol. 42, no. 12, pp. 31-36. Morton, B. & Delf, P. 2008, The prevalence and causes of MSI amongst sonographers, Radiography, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 195-200. Oke, K. & Adeyekun, A. 2013, Patterns of work-related musculoskeletal disorders among sonographers in selected health facilities in Nigeria, Journal of Applied Medical Sciences, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 67-76. Pike, I., Russo, A., Berkowitz, J., Baker, J. & Lessoway, V. 1997, The prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders among diagnostic medical sonograhers, Journal of Diagnostic Medical Sonography, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 219-227. Pocratsky, J., Ashby, B. & Beasley, J. 2013, Upper Extremity Kinematics in Sonographers During Kidney Scanning, Journal of Diagnostic Medical Sonography, pp. 1-10. Roll, S., Evans, K., Hutmire, C. & Baker, J. 2012, An analysis of occupational factors related to shoulder discomfort in diagnostic medical sonographers and vascular technologists, Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment and Rehabilitation, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 355-365. 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A study to compare between DAX and CT scan to diagnose osteoporosis in elderly women ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 2 ABSTRACT.. 3 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. 7 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.. 8 1.0 Overview.. 8 1.1 Statement of the Problem.. 9 1.2 Research Question. 9 1.3 Aims and Objectives. 10 1.4 Importance of this Review.. 10 1.5 Summary. 10 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 12 2.0 Overview.. 12 2.1 Ultrasonography: A Major Advance in Healthcare Practice. 12 2.2 The Prevalence of WRMSDs in Sonographers. 13 2.2.1 Signs and Symptoms of WRMSDs in Sonographers. 14 2.2.2 Factors Predisposing Sonographers to WRMSD.. 15 2.2.3 Preventing the Onset and Reducing the Severity of WRMSDs in Sonographers. 18 2.2.3.1 Risk Assessments. 18 2.2.3.2 Ultrasound Equipment 18 2.2.3.3 Education. 18 2.2.3.4 The Work Environment 19 2.3 Summary. 19 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY.. 20 3.0 Overview.. 20 3.1 Criteria for Formulating the Research Question. 20 3.2 Study Design. 22 3.3 The Search Strategy and Study Selection. 25 3.4 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria. 26 3.5 Final Study Selection. 27 3.6 Data Extraction. 27 3.7 Quality of the Chosen Studies. 28 3.8 Summary. 29 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS. 30 4.0 Overview.. 30 4.1 Study Selection. 30 4.2 Quality Assessment of the Chosen Studies. 33 4.3 Characteristics of the Selected Studies. 33 4.4 Prevalence and Development of WRMSDs in Sonographers. 37 4.4.1 Techniques and Protocols. 38 4.4.2 Sample Size and Correlations. 38 4.5 Factors Influencing WRMSDs in Sonographers. 40 4.6 Summary. 43 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION.. 44 5.0 Overview.. 44 5.1 Summary of the Evidence. 44 5.2 Limitations. 46 5.3 Findings within the Context of the Current Evidence. 47 5.4 Research Recommendations. 48 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION.. 50 References. 51 Appendices. 57 List of Tables 22 Defined Elements of the PIO Framework Used for this Research Study. 3.1 32 Examples of Reasons for Exclusion of Studies 4.1 35 Characteristics of the Selected Studies 4.2 List of Figures 31 The Study Selection Process using the PRISMA Statement. 4.1 40 Total Sample Size and Distribution Across and Within All Six Papers 4.2 List of Appendices Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP).. 57 muscle pain, which is an indicator of various diseases and disorders. The most common reasons for such pain are the overuse or over-stretching of a muscle or group of muscles, or arthralgia, which is a symptom of infection, injury and illnesses in particular, osteoarthritis; (Hackmon et al, 2006). As a result, this group of practitioners is often prone to developing one form of WRMSD or another. These are often referred to interchangeably as musculoskeletal injuries (MSIs), repetitive strain injuries (RSIs) and WRMSDs. http://www.aota.org/DocumentVault/AJOT/Systematic-Guide.aspx [Accessed 29 July 2014]. Armitage, A. & Keeble-Allen, D. 2008, Undertaking a Structured Literature Review or Structuring a Literature Review: Tales from the Field, The Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 103-114. Armstrong, R., Hall, B., Doyle, J. & Waters, E. 2011, Cochrane update. scoping the scope of a cochrane review, Journal of Public Health (Oxford, England), vol. 33, no. 12, pp. 147-150. Aslam, S. & Emmanuel, P. 2010, Formulating a researchable question: A critical step for facilitating good clinical research, Indian Journal of Sexually Transmitted Diseases, vol. 31, no. 12, pp. 47-50. Baker, J. & Coffin, C. 2013, The importance of an ergonomic workstation to practicing sonographers, Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine, vol. 32, no. 8, pp. 1363-1375. Barr, A., Barbe, M. & Clark, B. 2004, Work-related musculoskeletal disorders of the hand and wrist: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and sensorimotor changes, Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, vol. 34, no. 10, pp. 610-627. Bassey, D., Eduwem, D., Inah, G., Udoaka, A. & Akintomide, A. 2013,Work-Rekated Musculoskeletal Disorder amongst Sonologists in Nigeria, IOSR Journal of Dentak and Medical Sciences, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 68-71. Bastian, E., Kits, J., Weaver, J., Stevenson, J., Carlton, L., Raaymakers, S., et al. 2009, Effects of work experience, patient size, and hand preference on the performance of sonography studies, Journal of Diagnostic Medical Sonography, vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 25-39. Bettany-Saltikov, J. 2010, Learning how to undertake a systematic review: Part 2, Nursing Standard (Royal College of Nursing (Great Britain): 1987), vol. 24, no. 51, pp. 47-56. Boudin, F., Nie, J., Bartlett, J., Grad, R., Pluye, P. & Dawes, M. 2010, Combining classifiers for robust PICO element detection, BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 29-35. Bragge, P. 2010, Asking good clinical research questions and choosing the right study design, International Journal of Care of the Injured, vol. 41, , pp. S3-S6. Choi, P., Halpern, S., Malik, N., Jadad, A., Tramr, M. & Walder, B. 2001, Examining the evidence in anesthesia literature: A critical appraisal of systematic reviews, Anesthesia & Analgesia, vol. 92, no. 3, pp. 700-709. Cho, N., Hwang, J., Lee, Y. & Chae, S. 2011, Tendinosis-like histologic and molecular changes of the Achilles tendon to repetitive stress: a pilot study in rats, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, vol. 469, no. 11, pp. 3172-3180. Christenssen, W. 2001, Stretch exercises reducing the musculoskeletal pain and discomfort in the arms and upper body of echocardiographers, Journal of Diagnostic Medical Sonography, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 123-140. Coffin, C. 2014, Work-related musculoskeletal disorders in sonographers: A review of causes and types of injury and best practices for reducing injury risk, Reports in Medical Imaging, vol. 7, pp. 15-26. Cook, D. & West, C. 2012, Conducting systematic reviews in medical education: A stepwise approach, Medical Education, vol. 46, no. 10, pp. 943-952. Cross, N., Craig, J. & Webster, A. 2010, Asking the right question and finding the right answers, Nephrology, vol. 15, no. 12, pp. 8-11. Cruzes, D. & Dyb, T. 2011, Research synthesis in software engineering: A tertiary study, Information and Software Technology, vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 440-455. Das, K., Malick, S. & Khan, K. 2008, Tips for teaching evidence-based medicine in a clinical setting: Lessons from adult learning theory. part one, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, vol. 101, no. 10, pp. 493-500. Dawson, C. 2002, Practical research methods: a user-friendly guide to mastering research techniques and projects, How To Books Ltd, Oxford, U.K. Deeks, J., Higgins, J. & Altman, D. 2008, Analysing Data and Undertaking MetaAnalyses, Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions: Cochrane Book Series, pp. 243-296. Duclos, P., Durrheim, D., Reingold, A., Bhutta, Z., Vannice, K. & Rees, H. 2012, Developing evidence-based immunization recommendations and GRADE, Vaccine, vol. 31, no. 12, pp. 12-19. Edgar, F. & Geare, A. 2009, Inside the Black Box and HRM, International Journal of Manpower, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 220-236. Edwards, J. 2012, Dominant Upper Extremity Kinematics and Muscular Activity in Sonographers during Kidney Scanning, Masters Theses, Paper 17. Engen, D., Wahner-Roedler, D., Nadolny, A., Persinger, C., Oh, J., Spittell, P., et al. 2010, The effect of chair massage on muscular discomfort in cardiac sonographers: A pilot study, BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, vol. 10, pp. 50-55. Flegal, K., Carroll, M., Ogden, C. & Curtin, L. 2010, Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2008, Jama, vol. 303, no. 3, pp.235-241. Gasparyan, A., Ayvazyan, L., Blackmore, H. & Kitas, G. 2011, Writing a narrative biomedical review: Considerations for authors, peer reviewers, and editors, Rheumatology International, vol. 31, no. 11, pp. 1409-1417. Gibbs, V & Young, P. 2011, A study of the experiences of participants following attendance at a workshop on methods to prevent or reduce work-related musculoskeletal disorders amongst sonographers, Radiography, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 223-229. Guyatt, G., Oxman, A., Kunz, R., Atkins, D., Brozek, J., Vist, G., et al. 2011, GRADE guidelines: 2. framing the question and deciding on important outcomes, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, vol. 64, no. 4, pp. 395-400. Hackett, M. & Anderson, C. 2005, Predictors of depression after stroke: a systematic review of observational studies, Stroke; a journal of cerebral circulation, vol. 36, no. 10, pp. 2296-2301. Hackmon, R., Sheiner, E., Barnhard, Y., Beer, R. & Meizner, I. 2006, The hazards to practitioners of obstetric and gynecological ultrasound, Ultrasound in Obstetrics &Gynecology, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 204-206. Higgins, J. & Green, S. 2011, Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0. The Cochrane Collaboration, [online]. Available at: http://handbook.cochrane.org/ [Accessed 29 July 2014]. Horsley, T., ONeill, J., McGowan, J., Perrier, L., Kane, G. & Campbell, C. 2010, Interventions to improve question formulation in professional practice and self-directed learning, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, vol. 5, pp. 1-28. Ingkanisorn, W., Rhoads, K., Aletras, A., Kellman, P. & Arai, A. 2004, Gadolinium delayed enhancement cardiovascular magnetic resonance correlates with clinical measures of myocardial infarction, Journal of the American College of Cardiology, vol.43, no.12, pp.2253-2259. Irurhe, N., Okafor, U., Adekola, O., Odebiyi, D., Habeebu, M. & Sowunmi, A. 2013, Work related musculoskeletal discomforts (WRMD) in ultrasonologists: Prevalence and risk factors, World Journal of Medical Sciences, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 199-204. Jakobsen, M., OReilly, E., Heitmann, B., Pereira, M., Balter, K., Fraser, G., et al. 2009, Major types of dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease: A pooled analysis of 11 cohort studies, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 1425-1432. Jalalian, M. & Danial, A. 2012, Writing for academic journals: A general approach, Electronic Physician, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 474-476. Kung, J., Chiappelli, F., Cajulis, O., Avezova, R., Kossan, G., Chew, L., et al. 2010, From systematic reviews to clinical recommendations for evidence-based health care: Validation of revised assessment of multiple systematic reviews (R-AMSTAR) for grading of clinical relevance, The Open Dentistry Journal, vol. 4, pp. 84-91. 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PSY 600 Assignment 2 Week 2

HLT 324V Week 1 Benchmark Assignment – Diversity in Health Care

Explain how nursing practice has changed over time and how this evolution has changed the scope of practice and the approach to treating the individual.